NIda History Grobstas Horn for the first time was mentioned in 1366. There is a suggestion that it was the very first settlement on the Spit. Locations named Noyken or Noyden were described in the Teutonic chronicles in 385. Though it sounds like Nida, this hypothesis was rejected recently. True facts about Nida appeared in 1429 and 1437, when the Nida Inn was mentioned. The village was located not far from the sea, about 2-km south from present Nida. The innkeeper received privileges from the Magdeburg Rights in 1529. The innkeeper and 18 fishermen families, 3 part-time fishermen and one lodger family lived in Nida in 1541. And then sand attacks started.

Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (20,88 kB)

History Juodkrante (former Schwarzort or Schattenort) For the first time Juodkrante was mentioned in the tax records in 1429, though then it was closer to the sea and approximately 2,5 km to the north from its present location. Fourteen fishermen families, two part-time fishermen and two lodger families lived there in 1539. Due to life difficulties, poverty and threat of moving sand, people were leaving the place. Only 6 lodger families lived there in 1593. In 1599 and 1600 the village that consisted of 13 farmsteads was almost buried with the sand. The plague took many lives in 1603. Only 6 huts still had some inhabitants. Invasion of sand didn't stop and the Juodkrante village at the seaside was mentioned the last time in 1724.

Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (4,3 kB)

10kl.apklausa,tyrimas apie sveika mityba. ......A lot of schoolchildren answer that they most sometimes take breaks when they do their homework (always-21%, sometimes-58%, never-21%). Before they go to school they have a good breakfast (every morning-53%, sometimes-47%, never-0%). And a lot of teenagers eat some biscuits every week(every day-16%,some every week-58%, once a week-26%)!....

Anglų kalba  Tyrimai   (8,85 kB)

In most of Asia, especially China, Korea, and Vietnam, the New Year begins with the first full moon of the first Chinese lunar month. Special foods are eaten in each region. In China, foods are prepared ahead (using a knife during New Year's might "cut luck") and include dishes with names that sound auspicious, such as tangerines (good fortune), fish (surplus), and chestnuts (profit).

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (6,16 kB)

That very singular man, old Dr. Heidegger, once invited four venerable friends to meet him in his study. There were three white-bearded gentlemen, Mr. Medbourne, Colonel Killigrew, and Mr. Gascoigne, and a withered gentlewoman, whose name was the Widow Wycherly.

Anglų kalba  Pagalbinė medžiaga   (11,58 kB)

10psl tekstas apie Charlie Chaplin, geriausia kadanors gyvenusi aktoriu-komika. IZanga:Charlie Chaplin, who brought laughter to millions worldwide as the silent "Little Tramp" clown, had the type of deprived childhood that one would expect to find in a Dickens novel. Born in East Street, Walworth, London on 16 April, 1889, Charles Spencer Chaplin was the son of a music hall singer and his wife. Charlie Chaplin's parents divorced early in his life, with his father providing little to no support, either financial or otherwise, leaving his mother to support them as best she could. Chaplin's mother Hannah was the brightest spot in Charlie's childhood; formerly an actor on stage, she had lost her ability to perform, and managed to earn a subsistence living for herself, Charlie, and Charlie's older half-brother Sidney by sewing. She was an integral part of Charlie's young life, and he credited her with much of his success..... (APIMTIS 10 PSL)

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Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. April 18, 1955, and died.

Lietuvių kalba  Pateiktys   (8 psl., 970,16 kB)

Internetas- pasaulinis kompiuterių tinklas, jungiantis visuotinius ir vietinius kompiuterių tinklus [1] 1. Milijonai prie jo prijungtų kompiuterių kimšte prikimšti programų, dokumentų, knygų, piešinių ar kitokios informacijos, kuri specialiųjų technologijų dėka yra lengvai pasiekiama bet kuriam vartotojui. Internetas prijungia mūsų kompiuterius prie pasaulinių informacijos lobynų bei sujungia mus vienus su kitais.

Ekonomika  Analizės   (24 psl., 208,33 kB)

Rašinys apie vaikystę anglų kalba.

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Thieves – this is a very big problem in our society. Every day we can meet the performance street pickpocket. Our city is more than a professional pickpocket thief. Basing of the working people should especially keep your items and keep them to yourself.

Anglų kalba  Pagalbinė medžiaga   (1 psl., 3,37 kB)

Šie metodai turi labai lėtą konvergavimą, bet teoriškai jie gali įveikti vietinį minimumą (local minima.) Kitas trūkumas yra tas, kad vienas turi valdyti daugybę vidinių kintamųjų (kiekvienam svoriui nustatyti triukšmo periodus), kas nėra labai efektyvu. Arba apibrėžti tik išorinius kintamuosius - tokius kaip įėjimo signalas (input), norimas signalas ir žingsnio dydis. Iš pragmatiškos požiūrio pusės labai pageidaujami būtų taip vadinami on-line (tiesioginiai) algoritmai, t.y. algoritmai, kur atskiram pavyzdžiui svoriai kaskart būtų atnaujinami. Bet žvelgiant iš (annealing) modeliavimo pusės į stochastinę on-line atnaujinimo metodų prigimtį , jų realizavimas nebūtų efektyvus. Dėl šių priežasčių bus bandoma atlikti tokį eksperimentą: pridėti triukšmus prie norimo signalo ir eksperimentiškai ištirti tokios procedūros privalumus. Triukšmas taip pat buvo naudojamas gradiento perdavimo (descent) procedūrose. Holmstrom išanalizavo statinio BP algoritmo [Holmstrom and Koistinen, 1992] apibendrinimo galimybę, kuomet atsitiktinis triukšmas įvedamas į išorinius signalus. Šie bandymai parodė, kad apibendrinimas gali būti pagerintas naudojant bandomuosiusose (training) duomenyse papildomus triukšmus. Matsuoka pademonstravo, kad ir triukšmo įvedimas į vieną įėjimo signalą gali pagerinti apibendrinimą (generalization) [Matsuoka, 1992]. Abu autoriai susikoncentravo tik ties tinklo apibendrinimo galimybe, tačiau jie nenagrinėjo triukšmų poveikio mokymosi greičiui ir išėjimo iš local minima galimybės. II Mokymosi su papildomais triukšmais atitinkamame signale analizė II.1 Klasikinis stebimas mokymasis Šioje dalyje kaip mokymosi sistemos prototipas yra naudojamas daugiasluoksnis perceptronas (perceptron) (MLP) su dviem lygiais. Tačiau išvados gali būti atvaizduojamos atsikartojančiose topologijose. Šiame tinkle, xk aprašo iėjimo vektoriaus vieną elementą; yi yra išėjimo lygio i-tasis išėjimas; Wij nusako svorius tarp paslėpto ir išėjimo sluoksnių; Vjk yra svoris tarp įėjimo ir paslėpto sluoksnio; ir Pj nusako paslėpto sluoksnio aktyvavimą. Pateiktas čia apmokymo algoritmas - tai atgalinio mokymo (backpropagation) (BP) algoritmas [Rumelhart et al, 1986]. Tegul di(t) žymi kelis norimus išėjimo neurono i laiko momentu t atsakymus, kur t yra diskretaus laiko indeksas. Galima apibrėžti klaidos signalą, kaip skirtumą tarp norimo atsakymo di(t) ir turimo atsakymo yi(t). Tai nusakomo (1) formulė: Pagrindinis mokymosi tikslas yra minimizuoti kainos funkciją, kurią nusako klaidos signalas ei(t), taip, kad turimas kiekvieno išėjimo neurono atsakymas tinkle statistikine prasme artėtų prie norimo atsakymo. Kriterijus naudojamas kainos funkcijai yra Vidurkio-Kvadrato-Klaidos (Mean-Square-Error) (MSE) kriterijus, apibrėžiamas kaip klaidos kvadrato sumos vidurkio-kvadrato reikšmė [Haykin, 1994]: Kur E yra statistikinis tikimybės operatorius ir sumuojami visi išėjimo sluoksnio neuronai (i=1,…,M). Kainos funkcijos J minimizavimas atsižvelgiant į tinklo parametrus lengvai g.b. formuluojamas gradiento mažinimo (gradient descent) metodu. Šios optimizavimo procedūros problema yra ta, kad jai reikia žinių apie neapibrėžtų procesų, generuojančių pavyzdžius, statistikines charakteristikas. Praktiškai tai gali būti apeita, optimizavimo problemai surandant artimą sprendinį. Klaidos kvadratų sumos momentinė reikšmė (Instantaneous value of the sum of Squared Errors) (ISE) yra pasirinkimo kriterijus [Haykin, 1994]: Po to tinklo parametrai (svoriai) yra pritaikomi ε(t). Faktiškai ši procedūra vadovaujasi taip vadinamu LMS algoritmu, kuomet svoriai yra atnaujinami kartu su kiekvienu pavyzdžiu [Widrow and Hoff, 1960]. II.1 Mokymasis su norimu triukšmingu signalu Vietoj to, kad svorių pritaikymui naudoti norimą signalą di(t), kaip norimas signalas išėjimo neuronui i imamas naujas signalas di(t)+ ni(t), kur ni(t) yra triukšmo periodas. Šiam triukšmo periodui priskiriamas nulinės reišmės baltas triukšmas su σ2 pokyčiu (variance) , nepriklausančiu nei nuo įėjimo signalo xk(t) nei nuo norimų signalų di(t). Neapibrėžtas triukšmo perdavimas yra priskiriamas Gauso ar vienarūšiam perdavimui. Čia norima įrodyti, kad šis naujas norimas signalas neįtakoja galutinės svorių reikšmės statistikine prasme. Tai užtikrina, kad nauja savybė sprendžia originalią optimizavimo problemą. Turint naujus norimus signalus, MSE (4) lygties gali būti perrašyta taip: Nėra sunku įrodyti [Richard and Lippmann 1991; White, 1989; Haykin, 1994], kad (4) lygtis yra lygi Kur ‘|’ simbolis žymi sąlygines galimybes (probabilities), ir 'var' yra kitimų (variance) sutrumpinimas. Pastebėkite, kad antras periodas dešinėje (5) lygties pusėje prisidės prie bendros klaidos J ir koks ir bebūtų mokymosi progresas, jis neįtakos galutinės svorių reikšmės, kadangi jis nėra tinklo svorių funkcija. Optimali svorių reikšmė yra apsprendžiama tiktai pirmo (5) lygties periodo. Kuomet triukšmas yra nulinės reikšmės baltas triukšmas ir jis nepriklauso nei nuo norimo, nei nuo įėjimo signalų, mes turime (6) lygtis rodo, kad triukšmas iš lygties, kuri apibrėš galutines svorių reikšmes, dingsta, taigi mokymassi su norimo triukšmo signalu duos rezultatų, originalios optimizavimo problemos sprendimo prasme, t.y. be triukšmo pridėjimo prie norimo signalo. (learning with the noisy desired signal will yield in the mean the solution for the originaloptimization problem, i.e., without the noise added to the desired signal.) Reiktų konstatuoti, kad ši išvada galioja visoms architektūrų rūšims.Atlikimo funkcijai apibrėžti reikalingi tik išoriniai matavimai (MSE), ir tai nėra susiję nei su topologija nei su kainos funkcijos apibrėžimo būdu (statiniu ar kintamu). Nors šis sprendimas yra patenkinamas, reikia prisiminti, kad mus domina on-line algoritmas, kur yra mokymosi dinamika, t.y. kaip mokymosi progresas yra veikiamas triukšmų. II.3 On-line algoritmas mokymuisi veikiant norimam triukšmingam signalui Reiktų pažymėti, kad atliekamos, modifikacijos, jokiais būdais neveikia atgalinio mokymosi algoritmo realizacijos, kadangi yra modifikuojamas tik signalas, kuris yra įvedamas kaip norimas rezultatas. Taigi, siūlomos modifikacijos gali būti taikomos dar neegzistuojančioms modeliavimo sistemoms. Svarbi problema, kaip modeliavimo metu valdyti triukšmų kaitą (variance). Dėl to tolimesniame skyriuje bus apžvelgiama tiukšmų įtaka momentiniam gradientui. II.4 Norimo triukšmingo signalo gradiente analizė. Svorinio vektoriuas pritaikymo statiniame BP algoritme formulė, tiklui atvaizduotame 1 pav. norimame signale be triukšmų yra [Hertz et al.,1991] Svoriams tarp paslėpto sluoksnio ir išorinio sluoksnio, ir Svoriams tarp iėjimo sluoksnio ir paslėpto sluoksnio, kur ŋ yra žingsnio dydis. Su triukšmingu norimu signalu, ISE (3) lygties tampa: Lygtyse (7) ir (8) įrašant naują reikšmę εnoisy(t), gausime lygtis Palyginus lygtis (7) su (10) ir (8) su (11) daroma išvada, kad triukšmo pridėjimo prie norimo signalo poveikis, tai extra stochastinio periodo svoriniame vektorių taikyme įtraukimas, kas gali būti modeliuojama kaip pridėtinis momentinio gradiento triukšmas (pertirbation) betriukšminiam atvejui. Stochastinio periodo bendra forma Kur N(t) yra veiksmo funkcija gauta pakeitus originalią klaidą d(t)-y(t) įvestu triukšmu n(t). Panagrinėkime papildomų periodų (extra terms) statistines savybes (10) ir (11) lygtyse ir pastebėkime kaip jos veikia svorinių vektorių statistiką. Bet pirmiausia, apibrėžkime atsitiktinius kintamuosius: Jeigu atsitiktiniai kintamieji ir nepriklauso vienas nuo kito, ir g ir f funkcijos yra Borelo funkcijos, tuomet f ir gtaip pat yra nepriklausomos [Feller, 1966]. Realiausios funkcijos f(x) įskaitant sigmoido funkciją, plačiai naudojamą neuroniniuose tinkluose yra Borelio funkcijos. Taigi, galima daryti išvadą, kad (10) ir (11) lygtyse triukšmas n(t) nepriklauso nuo O taip pat ir nuo Todėl gali būti užrašytos papildomų periodų (extra terms) tikimybės ir Jų kitimas (variance) ir Iš (14) ir (15) lygties galima daryti išvadą, kad nulinės reikšmės atsitiktinis triukšmas norimame signale nedaro įtakos svoriniams vektoriams, taigi pagrindinė papildomo stochastinio periodo (extra stochastic term) svorio atnaujinimo reikšmė yra nulis. Iš (16) ir (17) lygties daromos dvi svarbios išvados: triukšmas pridėtas prie norimo signalo veikia svorio atnaujinimo kitimą proporciškai kiekvieno svorio jautrumui. Tai reiškia, kad atskiro triukšmo šaltinis išėjime yra išverčiamas į skirtingus triukšmų stiprumus kiekvienam svoriui. Antra, žingsnio dydis arba išorinio triukšmo šaltinio kitimas valdys papildomų periodų (variance of the extra terms) svoriniuose vektorių prisitaikymo formulėse kitimą, gaunamą pridedant triukšmą prie norimo signalo. Pastebima, kad, kai = 0 arba triukšmo kitimas yra nulis, tuomet stochastinis periodas (stochastic terms) išnyksta - lieka tik originalus svorio atnaujinimas (t.y. sprendžiama originali optimizacijos problema). Šie aspektai ir idėjos gautos iš globalios optimizacijos pateikia empirines taisykles išorinių triukšmų šaltinių valdymui, gaunat reikšmingus rezultatus. Modeliavimo pradžioje norėtųsi svoriams uždėti atsitiktinius trikdžius (perturbation), tam, kad būtų leista algoritmui pabėgti iš vietinio minimumo (local minima.). Tačiau artėjant prie adaptacijos pabaigos trikdžių (perturbation) kitimas turi būti sumažintas iki nulio taip, kad svoriai galėtų pasiekti reikšmes duotas originalios optimizacijos problemos. Toliau bus naudojamas (annealing) tvarkaraštis, pasiūlytas Moody [Darken, Chang, and Moody, 1992] Kur o yra inicijuojamo žingsnio dydis, c yra paieškos laiko konstanta, ir NI - iteracijos numeris. Šių konstantų reikšmės turės būti apibrėžtos eksperimentiškai, kadangi jos priklauso nuo problemų. III Modeliavimo rezultatai Patvirtinant anksčiau atliktą analizę, modeliavimo rezultatai bus pateikiami dviem pavyzdžiais. Vienas jų naudoja dviejų-lygių MLP, taip vadinamos lygiškumo problemos (parity problem), kuri buvo pademonstruota vietinio minimumo (local minima) atveju, pažinimui [Rumelhart et al, 1986]. Iš modeliavimo rezultatų bus matyti, kad mokymasis labiausiai gali būti pagerintas naudojant numatytą metodą (proposed approach) ir globalų minimumą, pasiektą statistikine prasme. Kitas pavyzdys naudoja dinaminį neuroninį tinklą TDNN [Waibel et al., 1989] laiko signalų modeliavimui. Antro modeliavimo rezultatai taip pat patvirtina ankstesnę analizę. III.I Eksperimentai su MLP Spresime 3 bitų lygiškumo problemą. Tinklo dydis 3-3-1, t.y. 3 įėjimo neuronai, 3 paslėpti neuronai, ir 1 išėjimo neuronas. Netiesiškumas (nonlinearity) yra logistinė funkcija. Tiesioginis atgalinis mokymas (backpropagation) yra naudojamas abiem atvejais. Buvo pridėtas Gauso (Gaussian) triukšmas su  =0.001 prie norimo signalo ir parinkti atitinkami parametrai 18 Lygtyje: c= 500 ir o= 0.3. Rezultatai parodyti 2 paveikslėlyje. Stora linija vaizduoja mokymasi su triukšmingu norimu signalu, o punktyrinė linija - su originaliu norimu signalu. Šis pavyzdys rodo, kad mokymasis artėja prie lokalaus minimumo, (local minimum) kuomet naudojamas originalus norimas signalas, bet naudojant triukšmingą norimą signalą mokymasis pasiekia globalų minimumą (global minimum) . Svarbu pabrėžti, kad mokymasis su originaliu signalu, naudoja pastovų žingsnio dydį, kai tuo tarpu signalo su triukšmais žingsnis yra gaunamas iš (18) lygties. Naudojant skirtingus žingsnio dydžius ir skirtingus pradinius (initial) svorius, buvo pasiekti panašūs rezultatai. Tam, kad patvirtinti šio algoritmo konvergavimo galimybę, buvo remiamasi Monte Carlo modeliavimai su 100 bandymu. Rezultatai pavaizduoti 3 Paveiksle, kur punktyrinė linija yra 100 veiksmų rezulatai originaliam signalui, o stora linija - 100 veiksmų rezulatatai triukšmingam signalui. Šiame eksperimente, svoriai yra parenkami atsistiktinai, o žingsnio dydis o atsitiktinai parenkamas iš intervalo [0,1, 0,7]. Kuomet globalus minimumas (global minimum) yra 0, tuomet yra lengva paskaičiuoti reikšmę ir pokytį (mean and variance) 100 galutinių klaidų, kurios pateiktos 1 Lentelėje. Dar daugiau, mokymasisi su triukšmingu signalu laike 99% priartėjo prie globalaus minimumo, o su originaliu signalu tik 26%. Iš 1 Lentelės, galima daryti išvadą, kad su triukšmingu signalu, mokymasis konverguoja į globalų minimumą; bet su originaliu signalu, mokymasis statistikine prasme nekonverguoja. Taigi, iš šių modeliavimo rezultatų galima daryti išvadą, kad triukšmingas signalas leidžia mokymosi algoritmui išeiti iš lokalaus minimumo (local minima). III. II Eksperimentai su dinaminiu neuroniniu tinklu III.I dalyje buvo pademonstruoti statinio neuroninio tinklo modeliavimo rezultatai. Tam, kad patvirtinti, jog aprašytas metodas taip pat veikia ir dinaminiuose neuroniniuose tinkluose. Dinaminės sistemos modeliavimui bus naudojamas TDNN [Waibel et al.,1989]. Bus nagrinėjama tokia sistema, Kur ',' žymi diferencijavimo operatorių. Sistemos įėjimai yra sinusoidžių aibė, Su atsitiktine faze l.. 4 ir 5 Paveikslėliuose vaizduojami sistemos įėjimo ir atitinkamai normalizuoti išėjimo signalai. TDNN tinklo struktūra demonstruojama 6 Paveikslėlyje, kur naudojamas keturių lygių vėlinimas. Šiame tinkle, kaip įėjimai į paslėptą lygį naudojami tik du įėjimo signalai x(t) ir x(t-4). Netiesiškumas (nonlinearity) paslėptuose neuronuose - tai logistinė funkciją. Išėjimas turi vieną tiesinį neuroną. Mokymosi algoritmas - tai BP, kur pavyzdžių klaidos surandamos atimant tinklo išėjimą y(t) iš sistemos d(t) išėjimo. Mokymosi kreivės pavaizduotos 7 Paveikslėlyje, kur triukšmo signalo žingsnio dydis surandamas naudojant (18) Lygtį, kur c=10, 0.01, ir triukšmo kitimas 2 =0.001 . Aiškiai matyti, kad su triukšmingu signalu konvergavimas yra greitesnis ir pasiekiamas žemesnis MSE. Naudojant skirtingus žingsnio dydžius ir svorius, pasiekiami panašūs rezultatai su MSE minimumu lygiu 0,0091. Paveikslėlyje 8 pavaizduotos mokymosi kreivės 100 mokymosi veiksmų, kur žingsnio dydis atsitiktinai parenkamas iš intervalo [0,1, 0,01], o svoriai taip pat yra atsitiktiniai skaičiai. Kadangi nėra žinomas šios problemos globalus minimumas, todėl naudojamas MSE minimali reikšmė 0,0091 kaip globalaus minimumo įvertis. 2 Lentelė atspindi statistikinius rezultatus 100 eksperimentų. 72% (trails) su triukšmingu signalu pasiekė globalų minimumą, ir tik 8% (trails) pasiekė globalų rezultatą su originaliu signalu. Daroma išvada, kad mokymasisi su triukšmingais signalais yra mažiau nepastovus ir mokymosi kreivės taip pat yra daug lygesnės. (smoother) IV.Discussion Eksperimentiškai buvo pademonstruota, kad mokymasis su triukšmingais signalais padidina pastovaus žingsnio dydžio BP algoritmo paieškos galimybes. Tai yra pasiekiama be papildomos kainos algoritmų realizavimo perioduose (This is accomplished at no extra cost in terms of algorithm implementation,), kadangi naudojamas tiesioginis atgalinis mokymas (straight backpropagation.) Papildomos savybės yra gaunamos įvedant nulinės reikšmės valdomo kitimo Gauso triukšmą ir žingsnio dydžio nustatymui pasinaudojant (18) Lygtimi. Buvo pademonstruota, kad triukšmo pridėjimas prie norimo signalo svorių atnaujinimo formulėse prideda nulinės reikšmės stochastinį periodą (that adding noise to the desired signal adds a zero mean stochastic term in the weightupdate formulas.). Nors atskiras triukšmo signalas ir yra įvedamas į norimą signalą, tačiau stochastinio periodo kitimas kiekvienam tinklo svoriui skiriasi (proporcingai kiekvieno svorio jautrumui). Dar daugiau, šio periodo kitimas tiesiogiai valdomas žingsnio dydžio arba išorinio triukšmo šaltinio kitimo. Tai reiškia, kad triukšmo pridėjimas prie norimo signalo yra labai paprasta ir efektyvi procedūra mokymosi proceso ištraukimo iš lokalaus minimumo. Kitimas arba žingsnio dydis turi būti parinktas (anealing) pritaikymo metu. Parinkimo (anealing) realizavimui buvo panaudota Moodžio paieška ir konvergavimo procedūra, tačiau kiekvienai problemai spręsti parametrai turi būti surandami eksperimentiškai. Žingsnio dydžio planavimas, toks, kad būtų įveiktas lokalus minimumas, išlieka atviras klausimas ne tik šiame metode, bet taip pat ir kituose stochastiniuose algoritmuose tokiuose kaip sumodeliuotas parinkimas (simulated annealing) [Kirkpatrick et al., 1983]. Mokymosi algoritmų lankstumo padidinimui yra siūlomi du skirtingi žingsnių dydžiai, vienas gradientui ir kitas - triukšmui. Ši procedūra turi neišvengiamą jungtį su globaliu optimizavimo metodu, vadinamu stochastiniu funkciniu nesklandumų šalinimu (stochastic functional smoothing) [Rubinstein, 1981 and 1986]. Priede aiškinama, kad tiesioginė stochastinio funkcinio nesklandumų šalinimo versija sutrikdo gradientą kartu su triukšmo periodu proporcingai Hesano paviršiui. ( an on-line ver-sion of stochastic functional smoothing perturbs the true gradient with a noise term proportional to the Hessian of the performance surface.) Kuomet signalas pridedamas prie norimo signalo, tikrinis (true) gradientas taip pat yra paveikiamas triukšmų periodo. Šiuo atveju poveikis yra proporcingas naujos veikimo funkcijos gradientui, kuris gaunamas iš originalaus skirtumo tarp d(t) ir y(t), kartu su įvestu triukšmu. Šis paviršius yra susijęs su originaliu, bet gali ir žymiai skirtis. Taigi, kuomet triukšmų šaltinis paprastai yra nustatomas į nulinę Gauso reikšmę, galima tikėtis mažiau optimalių rezultatų, lyginant su stochastinės funkcijos lyginimu (stochastic functional smoothing.). Tačiau algoritmo paprastumas ir geras veikimas gautas eksperimentuose skatina toliau dirbti prie šio metodo. Priedas Šio priedo tikslas yra susieti triukšmo pridėjimą prie norimo signalo naudojant stochastinį funkcinį lyginimo metodą, kuris yra globali optimizacijos procedūra. A.I Stochastinio funkcinio lyginimo optimizacijos apžvalga Stochastiniame funkciniame lyginime, originali neišgaubta funkcija yra perkeliama pagalbinės lyginimo funkcijos, kuri turi kai kurias optimizavimo savybes (t.y. atskiras minimumas). Dirbant su lyginimo funkcija, gali būti atsrastas optimalios problemos globalus minimumas . Lyginimo kainos funkcijos klasė parametrizuota ß yra apibrėžiama kaip [Rubinstein, 1981 and 1986] Kur ß yra valdymo parametras, o y yra atsitiktinis dydis. Dėl J ˆ (wtam, kad būti naudingam originaliai optimizacijai, h ˆ (v impulso atsakymas turi tenkinti keleta sąlygų [žr. Rubinstein, 1981 ir 1986 detaliau], taip, kad parametras apsprendžia lyginimo taikomo J(w) laipsnį. Dideliam lyginimo poveikis yra didelis ir atvirkščiai. Kuomet  0 J ˆ () = J , tuomet nėra lyginimo. Intuityviai aišku, kad norint išvengti lokalaus minimumo, optimizacijos pradžioje  turi būti pakankamai didelis. Tačiau siekiant optimumo lyginimo efektyvumas turi būti mažinamas leidžiant ß artėti prie nulio. Taigi minimumo taške w* laukiamas sutapimas tarp J(w) ir J ˆ ( Atitinkamai, konstruojant iteratyvią w* paieškos procedūrą, yra reikalinga lyginimo funkcijų aibė J ˆ(ß s=1,2,...... Jei signalo atsakymo dalis yra išrenkama kaip daugianormalinė funkcija su dydžiu n ir kitimu ß, tai Lyginimo kainos funkcijos gradientas gali būti įvertintas taip [Styblinski and Tang, 1990] Kur N yra pavyzdžių su daugybe kintamųjų iš (23) Lygties skaičius. Taigi, lyginimo kainos funkcijos gradientas gali būti randamas iš originalios kainos funkcijos. A.II Tiesioginė stochastinės lyginimo funkcijos Optimizavimo realizacija Susiejami triukšmo norimame signale poveikis ((10) ir (11) lygtys) su tiesiogine lyginimo funkcinių gradientų realizacija ((24) Lygtis)). Bus taikoma stochastinės aproksimacijos savybė [Robbins and Monro, 1951]. Kuomet ISE aproksimuoja (stochastine prasme) į MSE ir gradiento operatorius yra tiesinis operatorius, lyginimo kainos funkcijos gradientas εˆ gali būti įvertintas pagal analogiją su Lygtimi (25), taip Dėl supaprastinimo, čia yra ignoruojamas diskretinio laiko indeksas t. Reiktų pabrėžti, kad iš L.(24), kuri atspindi originalios stochastinės lyginimo funkcijos optimizacijos artėjimą prie L.(26), kuri yra tiesioginis L.(24) įvertis, tik vienintelė stochastinės aproksimacijos savybė buvo taikoma taip, kad būtų garantuotas tiesioginio įvertinimo stabilumas [Robbins and Monro, 1951; Kusher and Calrk, 1978; Wang and Principe, 1995]. Tiesioginis vienpusisi įvertis naudojamas L.(26) yra pagrindas gradiento įverčio naudojamo LMS ir BP algoritmuose. L.(26) išreiškia įvertinimą ε(w) gradiento, kuomet w yra paveikiamas atsitiktinio kintamojo βv j . Šis metodas praktiniam realizavimui yra per brangus, kadangi svoriai turi būti veikiami (gradiento skaičiavimui pageidaujamas antras tinklas). Taigi, šis metodas tiesiogiai nėra įgyvendinamas. Realizacijos supaprastinimui siūloma atlikti Teiloro seriją ekspansijų apie w, ir antrame etape jį suskaidyti. Literatūra 1. Darken, C., Chang, J., and Moody, J., “Learning Rate Schedules for Faster Stochastic Gradient Search,” IEEE Neural Networks for Signal Processing, 1992. 2. Fahlman, S., “Fast-Learning Variations on Back-Propagation: An Empirical Study,” In Proc. Of 1988 Conn. Model Summer School. 3. Feller, W, An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, Vol. 1, 2rd ed. Wiley, NewYork, 1966. 4. Haykin, S, Neural Networks---A Comprehensive Foundation, Macmillan College Publishing Company, New York, 1994. 5. Hertz J., Krogh A., Palmer R. G., “Introduction to the theory of neural computation,” Addison-Wesley,1991. 6. Hinton G. E., “Connectionist learning procedure,” In machine learning: Paradigms and methods, J. G. Carbonell, ed., pp. 185-234. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1989. 7. Holmstrom L., and Koistinen, P., “Using Additive Noise in Back-Propagation Training,” IEEE Trans. on Neural Networks, Vol. 3, No.1, 1992. 8. Kirkpatrick, S., et. al., “Optimization by simulated annealing,” Science 220, 671-680. 9. Krogh, A. and Hertz, J., “Generalization in a Linear Perceptron in the Present of Noise,” J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 25(1992) 1135-1147. 10. Kushner, H., “Asymptotic Global Behavior for Stochastic Approximation and Diffusions with Slowly Decreasing Noise Effects: Global Minimization via Monte Carlo,” SIAM J. APPL.MATH. Vol. 47, No. 1 Feb., 1987. 11. Kushner, H, and Clark, D. S., Stochastic Approximation Methods for Constrained and Uncon-strained Systems, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978. 12. Matsuoka, K., “Noise Injection into Inputs in Back-Propagation Learning,” IEEE Trans. Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1992. 13. Richard M., Lippmann R. P., “Neural network classifiers estimate Bayesian a posteriori probabil-ity,” Neural Computation, 3, 461-483, 1991. 14. Robbins, H., and S. Monroe, “A stochastic approximation method,” Annals of Mathematical Sta-tistics 22, 1951. 15. Rognvaldsson, T., “On Langevin Updating in Multilayer Perceptrons,” Neural Computation, 6.916-926, 1994. 16. Rubinstein, R., Simulation and the Monte Carlo Method, Wiley,1981. 17. Rubinstein, R., Monte Carlo Optimization, Simulation and Sensitivity of the Queueing Networks,Wiley, 1986. 18. Rumelhart et al, Parallel Distributed Processing, Vol.1, MIT Press, 1986. 19. Styblinski, M.A., and Tang, T.-S, “Experiments in Nonconvex Optimization: Stochastic Approxi-mation with Function Smoothing and Simulated Annealing,” Neural Networks, Vol.3, 1990. 20. Szu, H., “Fast simulated annealing,” AIP conf. Proc. 151:Neural Networks for Computing, Snow-bird, UT, 1986. 21. Waibel, A., T. Hanazawa, G. Hinton, K. Shikano, K. J. Lang, “Phoneme recognition using time-delay neural networks,” IEEEE Trams. ASSP-37, 1989. 22. Wang, C., and J. C. Principe, “On-line stochastic functional smoothing optimization for neural network training, submitted to Neural Networks, 1995. 23. Werbos, p., “Generalization of backpropagation with application to a recurrent gas market model,” Neural Networks, 1, 339-356. 24. Widrow, B., and Hoff, M., “Adaptive switching circuits,” IRE WESCON Convention Record, pp.96-104, 1960.

Informatika  Kursiniai darbai   (164,25 kB)

The brilliant British economist David Ricardo was one the most important figures in the development of economic theory. He articulated and rigorously formulated the "Classical" system of political economy. The legacy of Ricardo dominated economic thinking throughout the 19th Century. David Ricardo's family was descended from Iberian Jews who had fled to Holland during a wave of persecutions in the early 18th Century. His father, a stockbroker, emigrated to England shortly before Ricardo's birth in 1772. David Ricardo was his third son (out of seventeen!). At the age of fourteen, after a brief schooling in Holland, Ricardo's father employed him full-time at the London Stock Exchange, where he quickly acquired a knack for the trade. At 21, Ricardo broke with his family and his orthodox Jewish faith when he decided to marry a Quaker. However, with the assistance of acquaintances and on the strength of his already considerable reputation in the City of London, Ricardo managed to set up his own business as a dealer in government securities. He became immensely rich in a very short while. In 1814, at the age of 41, finding himself "sufficiently rich to satisfy all my desires and the reasonable desires of all those about me" (Letter to Mill, 1815), Ricardo retired from city business, bought the estate of Gatcomb Park and set himself up as a country gentleman. Despite his own considerable practical experience, his writings are severely abstract and frequently difficult. His chief emphasis was on the principles of diminishing returns in connection with the rent of land, which he believed also regulated the profits of capital. He attempted to deduce a theory of value from the application of labour, but found it difficult to separate the effects of changes in distribution from changes in technology. The questions thus raised about the labour theory of value were taken up by Marx and the so-called `Ricardian socialists' as a theoretical basis for criticism of established institutions. Ricardo's law of rent was probably his most notable and influential discovery. It was based on the observation that the differing fertility of land yielded unequal profits to the capital and labour applied to it. Differential rent is the result of this variation in the fertility of land. This principle was also noted at much the same time by Malthus, West, Anderson, and others. His other great contribution, the law of comparative cost, or comparative advantage, demonstrated the benefits of international specialisation of the commodity composition of international trade. This was at the root of the free trade argument which set Britain firmly on the course of exporting manufactures and importing foodstuffs. His success in attaching other economists, particularly James Mill and McCulloch, to his views largely accounted for the remarkable dominance of his ideas long after his own lifetime. Though much of this was eventually rejected, his abstract method and much of the theoretical content of his work became the framework for economic science at least until the 1870s. Egged on by his good friend James Mill, Ricardo got himself elected into the British parliament in 1819 as an independent representing a borough in Ireland, which he served up to his death in 1823. In parliament, he was primarily interested in the currency and commercial questions of the day, such as the repayment of public debt, capital taxation and the repeal of the Corn Laws. (cf. Thomas Moore's poems on Cash, Corn and Catholics)

Ekonomika  Referatai   (49,92 kB)

Kids do not turn violent overnight, nor do they not have previous problems of some type. Aggressive behavior can be attributed to a number of things and expressed in a number of ways through home-life, culture, and society. Many of the kids who have committed violent crimes have had problems since the age of five. It is extremely hard to say what leads kids to horrible acts such as Springfield and Columbine. One reason may be aggressive behavior in childhood, caused by harsh and inconsistent parents. A poor family life often leads to trouble in school from the very beginning. The best thing to do for such troubled children is to help them control their aggression through emotional growth and learning. Parents should encourage good behavior or the child will think this way is ineffective. As the child grows older they will continue to think that violent behavior is acceptable and is the most effective way. A teacher can step into these situations and help them see positive morals and realize their actions are wrong. Teachers should reward students for polite behavior or else they will feel frustration and failure. Frustration and failure can bring the child to aggressive behavior as it brings results and gives a sense of control.

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (6,68 kB)

Because of this new communication channel we feel almost as if we are eye witnesses of events which take place in distant countries. And this is just the beginning of a great development. Nowadays, everybody feels the need to have access to the internet. Personally, I just can't imagine that there is any information we can't by virtue this medium.

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (3,02 kB)

Introduction Means of transport is a general term for the different kinds of transport facilities that are often used to transport people or cargo. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Transport is performed by modes, such as air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure consists of the fixed installations necessary for transport, and may be roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines, and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations), and seaports. Terminals may both be used for interchange of passengers and cargo, and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, and aircraft. Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain urban sprawl. 1. Components of a mode of transport A transport mode is a combination of the following: • Traffic infrastructure: traffic routes, networks, nodes (stations, bus terminals, airport terminals), etc. • Vehicles and containers: trucks, wagons, ships, aircraft and trains. • A stationary or mobile workforce • Propulsion system and power supply (traction) • Operations: driving, management, traffic signals, railway switching, air traffic control, etc.

Anglų kalba  Referatai   (292,74 kB)

The Romans were the people from a city called Rome in what is now Italy. Rome was the greatest city of its time. At one time it had nearly one million people living there. About 1,800 years ago Rome was the centre of a big empire. For a long time the Romans believed in many different gods and goddesses.For example like Saturn, Minerva, Mars, Venus, Ceres and so on. They thought they were all part of a family and people told stories or myths about them. Each gods or goddess looked after different people or things. The Romans traded goods throughout their Empire. By importing goods from other countries they raised their standard of living and were able to have many luxuries. They used their network of roads and also waterways to transport goods from one country to another. The Romans imported silver from Great Britain, silk from China, cotton from Egypt and so on. Without trades and businesses, the Romans were lovers of entertainment. People went to one of the big theatres in Rome to watch plays. They went to the Hippodrome to see the chariot racing, too. The Colosseum in Rome could seat up to 50,000 people and was the largest amphitheatre in the Empire. It was here that people gathered to see the fights between gladiators, slaves, prisoners and wild animals like lions. Roman clothes were made of wool, spun into cloth by the women of the family. Later on the richer people had slaves to do this work for them. If you could afford to buy clothes, you could buy linen, cotton or silk, which was brought to Rome from other parts of the Empire. Washing clothes was difficult because the Romans did not have washing machines or soap powder. The Romans did not eat huge meals. Their main food was pottage. Pottage is a kind of thick stew made from wheat, millet or corn. Sometimes they would add cooked meat, offal or a sauce made out of wine. Food for the common people consisted of wheat or barley, olive oil.

Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (3,87 kB)

I open the window; make my bed and switch on the radio. I do my exercises to music. Then I go to the bathroom, take a shower and brush my teeth. While I dress, my mother gets breakfast ready for me. I usually have some toast, two eggs and a cup of tea. I leave the house at 7.55 a.m. As the school is not far from my home, I do not take a bus, I go on foot. It takes me only 5 minutes to get to school. I usually meet my best friend Povilas on my way. We walk together and talk about different things. Our lessons begin at 8 o’clock. We have seven lessons a day, except Monday and Friday. On these days we have six lessons. Our lessons are over 2.25 p.m. After coming home I have my dinner and take a short nap. Then I spend two hours on my homework. In the evening I like to do a little reading. Sometimes I sit at home and watch TV or listen to the radio. I also try to find time to do sports and help my parents. It is not until midnight that I usually go to bed.

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (3,04 kB)

In 1919 the Russian army was driven from most of Lithuania. A peace treaty was signed, and Russia recognized Lithuania’s sovereignty over Vilnius. But Poland, which had been seeking to recover territory lost during the 18th century, seized the city, after which Kaunas became the capital of Lithuania. From 1920 Lithuania was independent until, as a result of the 1939 pact between the Nazis and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), it was invaded by Soviet forces. During World War II, the USSR lost possession of Lithuania for a short time, but by 1944 it had re-established firm control. Thousands of armed partisan fighters, known as the “Forest Brothers”, continued their fight for national sovereignty, but during Stalin’s regime Lithuania suffered repression and mass deportations. Relations were less confrontational after the 1950s, but Lithuanians never gave up their goal of independence. In 1990 the country was one of the first republics to declare independence from the USSR, which was by then too unstable to force Lithuania back into the Union. Many countries quickly recognized Lithuania’s sovereignty, as did Russia and other former Soviet republics after the break-up of the USSR in 1991. The Lithuanian government, led by members of a political coalition called Saj?dis, embarked on a radical programme to reform the economy and other social structures, but progress was slow and painful. In national elections held in 1992, voters rejected the Saj?dis leadership in favour of former Communists, who had formed a new political party advocating slower reform and closer ties with neighbouring countries, especially Russia. The new government pledged to remain committed to democracy, but slowed privatization and other reform measures to soften the impact of political and social change. In August 1993 all remaining Russian troops withdrew from Lithuania, leaving the people free to concentrate on building a stable and prosperous country. Economy There was rapid industrialization after World War II, and by 1991 industry accounted for 43 per cent of Lithuania’s gross domestic product (GDP), and agriculture for about 28 per cent. The country makes precision machinery and spare parts, processed foods, and light industrial products. The main exports are machinery and parts, meat and dairy products, and consumer goods. Lithuania has very few natural resources, so the country depends heavily on imported raw materials. Imports include oil and gas, chemicals, metals, and equipment. Output declined after independence, because traditional supply arrangements were interrupted, but Lithuania is seeking ties with Western governments and neighbouring countries to increase revenue, foreign investment, and productivity. After independence, the Sajūdis government introduced a radical reform programme involving privatization and price liberalization. As in all former Communist countries that are moving towards a market economy, the initial results were rising inflation and falling living standards. By 1994, however, there were signs of recovery. The national currency is the litas.

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (22,56 kB)

Overall, the decline in cigarette smoking prevalence in the adult U.S. population is not occurring at a rate that will meet the 2010 national health objective of 12 percent. Sustaining or increasing implementation of comprehensive tobacco control programs to meet the CDC recommended funding levels are necessary to attain the 2010 national objective.

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (4,19 kB)

To begin with, all people use various services: postal services, telephone, telegraph, bank, police, diplomatic services, car maintenance services, petrol stations and personal services. Personal service establishments are very useful and many people visit them every day. I`m not an exception . When I am going to go to a party I go to hairdresser’s establishment. If I need my shoes to get mended, I go to the repair shop. When they are rather worn, I take them to the shoemaker’s. Occasionally I need to have my photos taken. Then I go to the photographer’s. In addition I have a camera at home so I can take photos myself. Unfortunately I can’t make photographs, so I have to go to the photographer’s and have them made. As far as I can see the telephone is widespread nowadays. The telephone is of great importance in business, in administrative relations and in the national economy. I have the telephone at home too and I like to talk over it. When necessary, the police, the fire brigade, the first aid and ambulance service can be called by anybody from any telephone. It is easy of access. You have to dial only two digits. We use the fire brigade. For example, once there was a strange smell and smoke from our neighbours door. Such being the case, we call a fire brigade. Fortunately for us it was only burnt stewpot [‹stju:pƒt]. What comes to postal service, I use it too. I like to communicate with people. I have some friends in Lithuania and Denmark, and I communicate with them. I send letters to Denmark by air mail. It costs more but it is faster. At the post office you can send telegrams too. I can send parcels with gifts to my friends when they celebrate their birthdays. A few years ago I used to go to café-internet. There you can Relax with a cup of tea or Espresso while you Surf the Net. Now I give preference to my computer at home. Finally sometimes I use medical services. If I am not ill very seriously I treat myself. However, a few years ago I broke my hand so for this reason I had to use services of medical professions. Another reason why I go to see the doctors is medical certificate for school. Once a half-year I go to the dentist. On the whole I havn`t a fear of various medical institutions like dentist and so on. I like listening comments and discussions on current affairs, interviews with various people on the radio. The programs are followed by music it`s the main reason why it interests me. I like to watch something on TV in the evenings. When my radio or TV has broken down I have to repaired it in the service shop. And when I was going to go abroad I used the diplomatic services. In that case I went to Vilnius embassy for my visa. In conclusion, all services are in your interest. Service industry provide a variety of facilities to help in every situation. Moreover it`s easy of access. And to my mind it make our life easier.

Anglų kalba  Pagalbinė medžiaga   (108,32 kB)

To begin with, all people use various services: postal services, telephone, telegraph, bank, police, diplomatic services, car maintenance services, petrol stations and personal services. Personal service establishments are very useful and many people visit them every day. I`m not an exception . When I am going to go to a party I go to hairdresser’s establishment. If I need my shoes to get mended, I go to the repair shop. When they are rather worn, I take them to the shoemaker’s. Occasionally I need to have my photos taken. Then I go to the photographer’s. In addition I have a camera at home so I can take photos myself. Unfortunately I can’t make photographs, so I have to go to the photographer’s and have them made. As far as I can see the telephone is widespread nowadays. The telephone is of great importance in business, in administrative relations and in the national economy. I have the telephone at home too and I like to talk over it. When necessary, the police, the fire brigade, the first aid and ambulance service can be called by anybody from any telephone. It is easy of access. You have to dial only two digits. We use the fire brigade. For example, once there was a strange smell and smoke from our neighbours door. Such being the case, we call a fire brigade. Fortunately for us it was only burnt stewpot [‹stju:pƒt]. What comes to postal service, I use it too. I like to communicate with people. I have some friends in Lithuania and Denmark, and I communicate with them. I send letters to Denmark by air mail. It costs more but it is faster. At the post office you can send telegrams too. I can send parcels with gifts to my friends when they celebrate their birthdays. A few years ago I used to go to café-internet. There you can Relax with a cup of tea or Espresso while you Surf the Net. Now I give preference to my computer at home. Finally sometimes I use medical services. If I am not ill very seriously I treat myself. However, a few years ago I broke my hand so for this reason I had to use services of medical professions. Another reason why I go to see the doctors is medical certificate for school. Once a half-year I go to the dentist. On the whole I havn`t a fear of various medical institutions like dentist and so on. I like listening comments and discussions on current affairs, interviews with various people on the radio. The programs are followed by music it`s the main reason why it interests me. I like to watch something on TV in the evenings. When my radio or TV has broken down I have to repaired it in the service shop. And when I was going to go abroad I used the diplomatic services. In that case I went to Vilnius embassy for my visa. In conclusion, all services are in your interest. Service industry provide a variety of facilities to help in every situation. Moreover it`s easy of access. And to my mind it make our life easier.

Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (4,74 kB)

After a bath, you have to choose a proper dress. Then, the most important thing is make-up. Moreover, you can not forget that your make-up must be not too heavy and colorful as it may scare your boyfriend. When your make-up is done, you need to choose jewelry. Of course, it should match your dress and make-up, as well. If you do everything carefully step-by-step and choose the right clothes and jewelry, you are supposed to have the most wonderful date in your life!

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (2,57 kB)

Periodontitis resultsfrom the same local and systemic factors that cause gingivitis. The severity and duration of these factors and resistance of patients influence the rate of osseous resorption. Lots of supporting tissue is caused by bacterial activity. Loss of attachment ocurs in irregular bursts of disease activity folowed by periods of remission. Periodontitis may affect only a few teeth at one time. Several types of periodontitis: adult periodontitis is the most common form of the disease. Adolescents may develop a severe and rapidly progressing form of periodontitis. Symptoms and signs. early symptoms are similar to those of gingivitis. The gingival pockets between the gingiva and the teeth deepen, calculus enlarge, bone loss begins. The pocket collect debris andallow microbes to proliferate. Treatment: scaling and root planning are clinical methods _ they involve the removal of calculus and plaque. Hand and ultrasonic instruments are used.

Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (3,09 kB)

It was five million years ago that the shape of the two main islands of New Zealand today began to form. Seven thousand years ago most of New Zealand's land area was covered by rainforest. The surrounding seas protected New Zealand's unique fauna and flora from marauding mammals, and because of this there were many species of flightless birds evolving in safety at ground level.

Anglų kalba  Referatai   (9,23 kB)

And it become my hobby. Every time when I do photos I listen to music. I can say that to do pictures take up a lot of time and energy. Sometimes I finish this work at 1 a.m., once I finished at 3 a.m. it was last summer. I have a special kind of photos which I like to do very much. It is the photos which were taken in my class. To do these pictures is always funny. I like my hobby and I can recommend this occupation, because it is devilly interesting, but it is only my opinion. I have a lot of other occupations. I like to go to the swimming-pool, I like to play with the computer, but my favourite hobby is photography. How I said all people have their favourite occupations. My father likes to play basketball and watch TV. My mother likes to read newspapers and my sister's favourite occupation is to listen to the radio M1. I can say what my hobby is for me. What it gives to me? First, I forget about everything, what happened wrong and things which I do not want to remember.

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (0,74 kB)

On the 17th of March there was my birthday. I decided to celebrate my birthday at home with my friends and family. I involved a lot of preparation before the party started. My mum made herself a big birthday cake and other delicious food. My brother and father tided all rooms and prepared the table, I made myself a lot of brightly colored decorations to decorate all rooms. I also prepared fun games. The guests started to come about 12pm and we began to celebrate. At first, we sit up around the table and ate delicious dishes prepared by my mum. Then we listen to loud music and dance. After that, we played my prepared games and watched film. At last we ate cake. I made a wish and blew up all candles. After the party, some my friends stayed up to sleep over. I felt a little bit exhausted, but very happy too. I had a lot of presents and I really enjoyed the party.

Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (2,73 kB)

June 24th is a festival in marking the summer solstice. It was first recorded to have taken place in the 14th century. It was believed that on this the shortest night of the year plants and water acquired special powers for healing illnesses or the ability to increase the fertility of farmland. Customs associated with the feast have retained their popularity to this day. Bonfires are lit, wreaths are floated on water, and every year people search the forest for the legendary blooming flower of the fern. The festival ends with the rising of the sun the following morning.

Anglų kalba  Konspektai   (3,3 kB)

• The Republic of Lithuania is situated near the Baltic Sea. The length of the sea border is 99 kilometres. Kuršių Nerija, a nearrow split of land, isbetween the Baltic Sea and the Kurish Lagoon. It is often called the Lithuanian Sahara. To the north the country borders on the Republic of Latvia, to the east and south - on Belarus, to the soutwest - on Poland and on the Kaliningrad region of the Russian Federation. The geometric center of the republic is about two kilometres west of Kėdainiai. The center of Erope is near the village Bernotai, 25 kilometres north of Vilnius. The highest point is Juozapinės hill, not far from Vilnius.It is 293.6 metres above sea level. The Nemunas River flows 937 kilometres. The Tauragnas is the deepest lake. • The first inhabitants had settled in the present territory of Lithuania about 900 BC. Lithuania was first mentioned in aLatin chronicle in 1009. It is believed that Lithuania gotits name from the Lietava River, the right tributary of the River Neris. It flows about 25 kilometres from the town Kernavė. The union of the Baltic tribes developed into the state of Lithuania in the 13th century. King Mindaugas (1251-1263) was thefirst Lithuanian king. The first Lithuanian ruler Gediminas founded the capital Vilnius in 1323. • The yer 1387 was significant as Lithuania was baptized and proclaimed a Christian state. The Battle of Žalgiris took place in 1410 where Grand Duke Vytautas together with the • Lithuanian and Polish armies defeated the Teutonic Order. • In 1918 the Act of independence was signed. The words music of the Russian occupation of Lithuania had started and was followed by the first deportations to Siberia. During World War ll Lithuanians had to join the Soviet army.The Act of the restoration of independence was proclaimed on March 11, 1990. The state holiday is February 16 known as independence Day. • The national flag consists of three colours.Yellow symbolizes the sun, light, and prosperity. Green represents the country's landscape,hope and joy. Red is the colour of the earth,life,and blood. • The founder of Lithuanian fiction is Kristijonas Donelaitis. The national bird is a stork,and the ruth is considered to be the national flower. According to the tradition,an oak is our national tree which sy mbolizes strength and fortitude. • The population is over three million in the republic. 1 700 000 Lithuanians or people of Lithuanian descent live in the whole world.Theaverage life expectancy is 70.5 yers. About 90 percent of Lithuanians are Roman Catholics.

Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (1,68 kB)

The capital of Lithuania is Vilnius. The official language of the state is Lithuanian. Lithuanian flag consists of gold, green and red ribbons. State emblem - white Vytis in the red field. The biggest town in Lithuania is Vilnius, then goes Kaunas, very beautiful town on the place where the river Neris flows into the Nemunas. Klaipeda, Panevezhys, Shiauliai and other big cities too. For the first time Lithuania was mentioned in 1009 in Quedlinburg annals. As a state it was emerged in the early 13th century and Mindaugas became the Grand Duke of Lithuania about 1240. At the end of 14th and the beginning of 15th century Lithuania became one of the most powerful states in the Europe. Lithuania was christened in 14th century, until that time it was pagan. Lithuanian people had to fight a lot for their freedom. The latest occupation ended only in 1990, when on March 11 Lithuania proclaimed its restoration of statehood. There are two big Universities in Lithuania in Vilnius and in Kaunas. University in Vilnius is very old: it was established in 1579, and another University, which received the name of the Vytautas the Great, was founded in 1930.

Anglų kalba  Kalbėjimo temos   (0,87 kB)

Eventually, genetic engineering will allow us to create the perfect human. It will be hard to get used to. Parents will order a baby who will grow up to do a slam dunk or to have a Barbie doll appearance. But after the 2082 winter Olympics, some babies will be created aerodynamic, so they can sail like ski jumpers. Soon, powerful little motors will be added so they can fly, and a new fad will really take off. Billions of slam dunkers will jump for joy, while billions of Barbie dollers will become totally depressed. Also, genetic engineering will allow us to mix plants and animals. So, should we allow a female researcher to cross a man with a tree? She would then have something much more stable and dependable, and he wouldn't run around as much. But who would want to be a tree? If that was allowed, then what would the male researchers come up with?

Anglų kalba  Straipsniai   (10,64 kB)